Keandalan sejarah Kitab-kitab Injil

Keandalan sejarah Kitab-kitab Injil mengacu pada keandalan dan karakter sejarah dari empat Perjanjian Baru injil sebagai dokumen sejarah. Sejumlah orang percaya bahwa keempat injil kanonik memenuhi lima kriteria untuk keandalan historis; beberapa mengatakan bahwa sedikit dalam Injil dapat diandalkan sebagai sejarah.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] Hampir semua sarjana kuno setuju bahwa Yesus ada,^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] tetapi para sarjana itu berbeda pandangan mengenai historisitas episode-episode tertentu yang dijelaskan dalam Alkitab mengenai Yesus,^[11] dan hanya dua peristiwa yang menerima "persetujuan hampir universal" adalah bahwa Yesus dibaptiskan oleh Yohanes Pembaptis dan disalibkan atas perintah Prefek Romawi Pontius Pilatus.^[12]^[13]^[14] Unsur-unsur yang keaslian sejarahnya disengketakan meliputi dua kisah Kelahiran Yesus, peristiwa-peristiwa ajaib termasuk kebangkitan, dan rincian tertentu tentang penyaliban.^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]

Menurut pandangan mayoritas Injil Matius, Markus, dan Lukas, secara kolektif disebut sebagai Injil Sinoptik, adalah sumber utama informasi historis tentang Yesus dan gerakan keagamaan yang didirikan-Nya.^[21]^[22] Injil keempat, Injil Yohanes, sangat berbeda dari ketiga Injil yang lain. Sejarawan sering mempelajari keandalan sejarah Kisah para Rasul ketika mempelajari keandalan Kitab-kitab Injil, karena Kisah Para Rasul tampaknya ditulis oleh penulis yang sama untuk Injil Lukas.

Sejarawan meneliti kitab-kitab Injil dengan analisis kritis, berusaha untuk membedakan, bukan mengotentikasikan, informasi yang dapat dipercaya dari kemungkinan khayalan, penambahan berlebihan, dan pengubahan. Karena ada lebih banyak varian tekstual dalam Perjanjian Baru (200-400 ribu) dari huruf-hurufnya (c. 140 ribu),^[23] para sarjana menggunakan kritik tekstual untuk menentukan mana varian Injil yang secara teoritis dapat dianggap sebagai 'asli'. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, para sarjana harus bertanya siapa yang menulis Injil, kapan mereka menulis, apa tujuan mereka dalam menulis, apa sumber-sumber yang digunakan penulis, seberapa dapat diandalkan sumber-sumber ini, dan seberapa jauh waktunya dari sumber asal dari cerita-cerita mereka, atau jika mereka diubah nanti. Para sarjana juga dapat melihat bukti-bukti internal di dalam dokumen, untuk melihat jika, misalnya, dokumen itu adalah salah mengutip teks-teks dari Tanakh bahasa Ibrani, membuat klaim tentang geografi yang salah, jika penulis tampaknya menyembunyikan informasi, atau jika penulis telah mengarang-ngarang suatu nubuat.^[24] Akhirnya, para sarjana beralih ke sumber-sumber eksternal, termasuk kesaksian dari pemimpin gereja mula-mula, penulis di luar gereja (terutama sejarawan Yahudi dan Yunani-Romawi) yang akan lebih mungkin untuk mengkritik gereja awal, serta bukti-bukti arkeologi.

Naskah paling awal yang masih ada

Naskah tertua adalah berupa fragmenbberukuran kartu nama dari Injil Yohanes, Rylands Library Papyrus P52, yang bertarikh paruh pertama abad ke-2. Salinan lengkap satu kitab Perjanjian Baru muncul sekitar tahun 200, dan salinan lengkap Perjanjian Baru, the Codex Sinaiticus bertarikh abad ke-4.^[25] Dalam kasus Injil, kesenjangan waktu antara penulis dan naskah paling awal yang masih ada atau yang sudah ada naskah teks adalah jauh lebih pendek dibandingkan naskah-naskah kuno lain yang diterima, seperti naskah-naskah yang dikaitkan dengan Plato.^[26] Salinan dialog Plato tertua yang ada bertarikh sekitar 1.000 tahun setelah Plato menulis teks itu.^[27] Kondisi naskah-naskah paling kuno itu adalah penting, tapi tidak selalu berdampak pada keandalan, atau kurangnya keandalan, suatu sumber.^[28]

Daftar tabel berikut mencantumkan manuskrip Injil paling awal yang masih ada.

Kitab	Manuskrip tertua yang terlestarikan	Tarikh	Kondisi
Matius	${\mathfrak {P}}$ ¹, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ¹⁹, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ²¹, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ²⁵, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ³⁷, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁴⁵, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁵³, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ^64/67, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁷⁰, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁷⁷, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ¹⁰¹, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ¹⁰³, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ¹⁰⁴^[29]	~ 150–250 (abad ke-2/ke-3)	Fragmen-fragmen besar
Markus	${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁴⁵	~ 250 (abad ke-3)	Fragmen-fragmen besar
Lukas	${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁴, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁶⁹, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁷⁵, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁴⁵	~ 175–250 (abad ke-2/ke-3)	Fragmen-fragmen besar
Yohanes	${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁵, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁶, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ²², ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ²⁸, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ³⁹, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁴⁵, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁵², ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁶⁶, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁷⁵, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁸⁰, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁹⁰{, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ⁹⁵, ${\mathfrak {P}}$ ¹⁰⁶	~ 125–250 (abad ke-2/ke-3)	Fragmen-fragmen besar

Kritik tekstual dan interpolasi

Kritik tekstual berkaitan dengan identifikasi dan penghapusan kesalahan transkripsi dalam teks-teks dari naskah-naskah kuno. Para ahli taurat kuno membuat kesalahan atau perubahan (seperti termasuk penambahan non-otentik).^[30] Dalam upaya untuk menentukan teks asli dari kitab Perjanjian Baru, beberapa kritik teks modern telah mengidentifikasi beberapa bagian sebagai penambahan bahan, berabad-abad setelah injil ditulis. Ini disebut interpolasi. Dalam terjemahan-terjemahan modern Alkitab, hasil dari kritik tekstual telah menyebabkan beberapa ayat, kata-kata dan frase ditinggalkan atau ditandai sebagai tidak asli.

Lihat pula

Referensi

^ Sanders, E. P. (1993). The Historical Figure of Jesus. Penguin.
^ The Myth about Jesus, Allvar Ellegard 1992,
^ Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 5,
^ Charles H. Talbert, What Is a Gospel? The Genre of Canonical Gospels pg 42 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977).
^ Fire of Mercy, Heart of the Word (Vol. II): Meditations on the Gospel According to St. Matthew – Dr Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, Ignatius Press, Introduction
^ Grant, Robert M., "A Historical Introduction to the New Testament" (Harper and Row, 1963) "Archived copy". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2010-06-21. Diakses tanggal 2009-11-24.
^ In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman (a secular agnostic) wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, 2011 Forged: writing in the name of God ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. page 285
^ Robert M. Price (an atheist) who denies the existence of Jesus agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars: Robert M. Price "Jesus at the Vanishing Point" in The Historical Jesus: Five Views edited by James K. Beilby & Paul Rhodes Eddy, 2009 InterVarsity, ISBN 0830838686 page 61
^ Michael Grant (a classicist) states that "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." in Jesus by Michael Grant 2004 ISBN 1898799881 page 200
^ Richard A. Burridge states: "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church’s imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more." in Jesus Now and Then by Richard A. Burridge and Graham Gould (Apr 1, 2004) ISBN 0802809774 page 34
^ Powell, Mark Allan (1998). Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee. ISBN 0-664-25703-8. page 181
^ Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 page 339 states of baptism and crucifixion that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent".
^ Prophet and Teacher: An Introduction to the Historical Jesus by William R. Herzog (Jul 4, 2005) ISBN 0664225284 pages 1-6
^ Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. hlm. 145. ISBN 0-06-061662-8. That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact.
^ Who is Jesus? Answers to your questions about the historical Jesus, by John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts (Westminster John Knox Press 1999), page 108
^ James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) page 779-781.
^ Rev. John Edmunds, 1855 The seven sayings of Christ on the cross Thomas Hatchford Publishers, London, page 26
^ Stagg, Evelyn and Frank. Woman in the World of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978 ISBN 0-664-24195-6
^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Empty Tomb, Appearances & Ascension" p. 449-495.
^ Bruce M. Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: Luke 24:51 is missing in some important early witnesses, Acts 1 varies between the Alexandrian and Western versions.
^ "The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus" "Jesus Christ." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 November 2010 [1].
^ Vermes, Geza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London, Penguin Books. 2004.
^ Bart D. Ehrman: Misquoting Jesus - The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, p. 90 (review).
^ The Gospel of Matthew claims, the title Nazarene for Jesus was derived from the prophecy "He will be called a Nazorean" (Matthew 2:22-23:NRSV), despite the lack of any Old Testament source.
^ Ehrman 2004, pp. 479-480
^ Complete photographic facsimile in Allen, T. W., Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39 Phototypice editus, 2 vols. Leiden 1898–9.
^ Complete photographic facsimile in Allen, T. W., Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39 Phototypice editus, 2 vols. Leiden 1898–9.
^ Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. hlm. 19. ISBN 0-8014-8560-6. Historians must thus always consider the conditions under which a source was produced—the intentions that motivated it—but they must not assume that such knowledge tells them all they need to know about its “reliability.” They must also consider the historical context in which it was produced—the events that preceded it, and those that followed.
^ Willker, Wieland (17 April 2008). "Complete List of Greek NT Papyri". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 12 March 2014.
^ Ehrman, Misquoting Jesus (2005), p. 46

Pustaka

Barnett, Paul W. (1997). Jesus and the Logic of History (New Studies in Biblical Theology 3). Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-385-49449-1.
Barnett, Paul W. (1987). Is the New Testament History?. Servant Publications. ISBN 0-89283-381-5.
Blomberg, Craig L. (2008). The Historical Reliability of the Gospels (2nd ed.). IVP Academic. ISBN 978-0-8308-2807-4.
Brown, Raymond E. (1993). The Death of the Messiah: from Gethsemane to the Grave. New York: Anchor Bible. ISBN 0-85111-512-8.
Bock, Darrell L., Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods.. Baker Academic: 2002. ISBN 978-0-8010-2451-1.
Gerhardsson, Birger (2001). The Reliability of the Gospel Tradition. Peabody, Ma: Hendrickson. ISBN 1-56563-667-8.
Grant, Michael. Jesus: A Historian's Review of the Gospels. Scribner's, 1977. ISBN 0-684-14889-7.
Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Doubleday,

v. 1, The Roots of the Problem and the Person, 1991, ISBN 0-385-26425-9

v. 2, Mentor, Message, and Miracles, 1994, ISBN 0-385-46992-6

v. 3, Companions and Competitors, 2001, ISBN 0-385-46993-4

v. 4, Law and Love ISBN 978-0300140965

v. 5, Probing the Authenticity of the Parables ISBN 978-0300211900

Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: 1987.
Wright, N.T. Christian Origins and the Question of God, a projected 6 volume series of which 3 have been published under:

v. 1, The New Testament and the People of God. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: 1992.;

v. 2, Jesus and the Victory of God. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: 1997.;

v. 3, The Resurrection of the Son of God. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: 2003.

Wright, N.T. The Challenge of Jesus: Rediscovering who Jesus was and is. IVP 1996

Pranala luar

The various endings of Mark Detailed text-critical description of the evidence, the manuscripts, and the variants of the Greek text (PDF, 17 pages)
Extracts from authors arguing for the authenticity of Mark 16:9–20
Catholic Encyclopedia: Gospel of Saint Mark: Section IV. STATE OF TEXT AND INTEGRITY
Last Twelve Verses of the Gospel According to S. Mark Vindicated Against Recent Critical Objectors and Established A Book written by Burgon, John William
The Authenticity of Mark 16:9–20 A detailed defense of Mark 16:9–20, featuring replicas of portions of Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus and a list of early patristic evidence.

[Sanders-1] Sanders, E. P. (1993). The Historical Figure of Jesus. Penguin.

[2] The Myth about Jesus, Allvar Ellegard 1992,

[3] Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 5,

[Charles_H._Talbert_pg_42-4] Charles H. Talbert, What Is a Gospel? The Genre of Canonical Gospels pg 42 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977).

[ReferenceC-5] Fire of Mercy, Heart of the Word (Vol. II): Meditations on the Gospel According to St. Matthew – Dr Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, Ignatius Press, Introduction

[religion-online.org-6] Grant, Robert M., "A Historical Introduction to the New Testament" (Harper and Row, 1963) "Archived copy". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2010-06-21. Diakses tanggal 2009-11-24.

[Ehrman285-7] In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman (a secular agnostic) wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, 2011 Forged: writing in the name of God ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. page 285

[8] Robert M. Price (an atheist) who denies the existence of Jesus agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars: Robert M. Price "Jesus at the Vanishing Point" in The Historical Jesus: Five Views edited by James K. Beilby & Paul Rhodes Eddy, 2009 InterVarsity, ISBN 0830838686 page 61

[Grantmajority-9] Michael Grant (a classicist) states that "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." in Jesus by Michael Grant 2004 ISBN 1898799881 page 200

[Burridge34-10] Richard A. Burridge states: "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church’s imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more." in Jesus Now and Then by Richard A. Burridge and Graham Gould (Apr 1, 2004) ISBN 0802809774 page 34

[MAPowell168-11] Powell, Mark Allan (1998). Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee. ISBN 0-664-25703-8. page 181

[JDunn339-12] Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 page 339 states of baptism and crucifixion that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent".

[Hertzog1-13] Prophet and Teacher: An Introduction to the Historical Jesus by William R. Herzog (Jul 4, 2005) ISBN 0664225284 pages 1-6

[autogenerated145-14] Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. hlm. 145. ISBN 0-06-061662-8. That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact.

[15] Who is Jesus? Answers to your questions about the historical Jesus, by John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts (Westminster John Knox Press 1999), page 108

[16] James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) page 779-781.

[17] Rev. John Edmunds, 1855 The seven sayings of Christ on the cross Thomas Hatchford Publishers, London, page 26

[Staggs-18] Stagg, Evelyn and Frank. Woman in the World of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978 ISBN 0-664-24195-6

[ActJTomb-19] Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Empty Tomb, Appearances & Ascension" p. 449-495.

[20] Bruce M. Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: Luke 24:51 is missing in some important early witnesses, Acts 1 varies between the Alexandrian and Western versions.

[britannica.com-21] "The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus" "Jesus Christ." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 November 2010 [1].

[Vermes-22] Vermes, Geza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London, Penguin Books. 2004.

[23] Bart D. Ehrman: Misquoting Jesus - The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, p. 90 (review).

[nazorene-24] The Gospel of Matthew claims, the title Nazarene for Jesus was derived from the prophecy "He will be called a Nazorean" (Matthew 2:22-23:NRSV), despite the lack of any Old Testament source.

[25] Ehrman 2004, pp. 479-480

[26] Complete photographic facsimile in Allen, T. W., Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39 Phototypice editus, 2 vols. Leiden 1898–9.

[27] Complete photographic facsimile in Allen, T. W., Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39 Phototypice editus, 2 vols. Leiden 1898–9.

[28] Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. hlm. 19. ISBN 0-8014-8560-6. Historians must thus always consider the conditions under which a source was produced—the intentions that motivated it—but they must not assume that such knowledge tells them all they need to know about its “reliability.” They must also consider the historical context in which it was produced—the events that preceded it, and those that followed.

[Willker-29] Willker, Wieland (17 April 2008). "Complete List of Greek NT Papyri". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 12 March 2014.

[30] Ehrman, Misquoting Jesus (2005), p. 46

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