Sejarah genetik penduduk asli Amerika

Sejarah genetika penduduk asli Amerika (juga diberi nama Amerindian atau Amerind dalam antropologi fisik) dibagi menjadi dua episode yang berbeda tajam: pemukiman penduduk awal di Amerika selama sekitar 20.000 hingga 14.000 tahun yang lalu (20–14 kya), dan kontak bangsa Eropa, setelah sekitar 500 tahun yang lalu.^[1]^[2] Yang pertama adalah faktor penentu bagi jumlah garis keturunan genetik, mutasi zigositas, dan haplotipe pendiri terdapat dalam populasi Amerindian asli saat ini.^[3]

Sebagian besar kelompok Amerindian berasal dari suatu garis keturunan leluhur sebagai dasarnya, yang terbentuk di Siberia sebelum Glasial Maksimum Terakhir, antara sekitar 36.000 dan 25.000 tahun yang lalu, dari suatu kombinasi nenek moyang dari orang Asia Timur awal dan orang Eurasia Utara Kuno dan yang tersebar di seluruh Amerika setelah sekitar 16.000 tahun yang lalu (pengecualian untuk kelompok-kelompok berbahasa Na Dene dan Eskimo-Aleut, yang sebagian berasal dari populasi Siberia yang memasuki Amerika kemudian).^[4]

Pada awal tahun 2000, para ahli arkeogenetika terutama mendasarkan pada haplogrup DNA Y-kromosom manusia dan haplogroup DNA mitokondria.^[5] Penanda autosomal "atDNA" juga digunakan, namun berbeda dari mtDNA atau Y-DNA karena mereka tumpang tindih secara signifikan.^[6]

Analisis genetika di kalangan populasi Amerindian dan Siberia telah digunakan untuk memperdebatkan isolasi awal populasi pendiri di Beringia^[7] dan kemudian, migrasi yang lebih cepat dari Siberia melalui Beringia menuju Dunia Baru.^[8]

Referensi

^ Wendy Tymchuk, Senior Technical Editor (2008). "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q. Genebase Tutorials". Genebase Systems. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2010-06-22. Diakses tanggal 2009-11-21.
^ Orgel, Leslie E. (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world" (PDF). Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 39 (2): 99–123. doi:10.1080/10409230490460765. PMID 15217990. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2018-11-13. Diakses tanggal 2018-08-02.
^ Tallbear, Kim (2014). "The Emergence, Politics, and Marketplace of Native American DNA". Dalam Kleinman, Daniel Lee; Moore, Kelly. Routledge Handbook of Science, Technology, and Society. Routledge. hlm. 23. ISBN 978-1-136-23716-4.
^ "Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans", Nature, Macmillan Publishers Limited, diakses tanggal January 3, 2018 Confidence intervals given in Moreno-Mayar et al. (2018): 26.1-23-9 kya for the separation of the East Asian lineage of ANA from modern East Asian populations; 25-20 kya for the admixture event of ANE and early East Asian lineages ancestral to ANA; 22.0-18.1 kya for the separation of Ancient Beringian from other Paleo-Indian lineages; 17.5-14.6 kya for the separation of Paleo Indian into North Native Americans (NNA) and South Native Americans (SNA). Supplementary Material^{[pranala nonaktif permanen]} p. 37. "the admixture event that gave rise to most Na-Dene-speakers, between NNA and a Siberian population occurred well after 11.5 kya and at least prior to ~2.5 kya".
^ Y Chromosome Consortium (2002). "A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups" (PDF). Genome Research. 12 (2): 339–348. doi:10.1101/gr.217602. PMC 155271 . PMID 11827954. (Detailed hierarchical chart)
^ Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; et al., ed. (2000). An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (edisi ke-7th). New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3771-X.
^ Tamm, Erika; Kivisild, Toomas; Reidla, Maere; et al. (5 September 2007). "Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders". PLoS One. 2 (9): e829. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..829T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000829. PMC 1952074 . PMID 17786201.
^ Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Grzybowski, Tomasz; et al. (21 December 2010). "Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia". PLOS ONE. 5 (12): e15214. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...515214D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015214. PMC 3006427 . PMID 21203537.

Bacaan lanjutan

Peter N. Jones (October 2002). American Indian mtDNA, Y chromosome genetic data, and the peopling of North America. Bauu Institute. ISBN 978-0-9721349-1-0.
Joseph Frederick Powell (2005). The first Americans: race, evolution, and the origin of Native Americans. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82350-0. ^{[pranala nonaktif permanen]}
Francisco M. Salzano; Maria Cátira Bortolini (2002). The evolution and genetics of Latin American populations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65275-9. ^{[pranala nonaktif permanen]}
"The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health". scientific journal American Journal of Physical Anthropology. University of Oklahoma. 2009. Diakses tanggal 2009-11-21.

[Genebase-1] Wendy Tymchuk, Senior Technical Editor (2008). "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q. Genebase Tutorials". Genebase Systems. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2010-06-22. Diakses tanggal 2009-11-21.

[2] Orgel, Leslie E. (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world" (PDF). Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 39 (2): 99–123. doi:10.1080/10409230490460765. PMID 15217990. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2018-11-13. Diakses tanggal 2018-08-02.

[KleinmanMoore2014-3] Tallbear, Kim (2014). "The Emergence, Politics, and Marketplace of Native American DNA". Dalam Kleinman, Daniel Lee; Moore, Kelly. Routledge Handbook of Science, Technology, and Society. Routledge. hlm. 23. ISBN 978-1-136-23716-4.

[Moreno-Mayar2018-4] "Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans", Nature, Macmillan Publishers Limited, diakses tanggal January 3, 2018 Confidence intervals given in Moreno-Mayar et al. (2018): 26.1-23-9 kya for the separation of the East Asian lineage of ANA from modern East Asian populations; 25-20 kya for the admixture event of ANE and early East Asian lineages ancestral to ANA; 22.0-18.1 kya for the separation of Ancient Beringian from other Paleo-Indian lineages; 17.5-14.6 kya for the separation of Paleo Indian into North Native Americans (NNA) and South Native Americans (SNA). Supplementary Material^{[pranala nonaktif permanen]} p. 37. "the admixture event that gave rise to most Na-Dene-speakers, between NNA and a Siberian population occurred well after 11.5 kya and at least prior to ~2.5 kya".

[nomenclature-5] Y Chromosome Consortium (2002). "A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups" (PDF). Genome Research. 12 (2): 339–348. doi:10.1101/gr.217602. PMC 155271 . PMID 11827954. (Detailed hierarchical chart)

[Griffiths-6] Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; et al., ed. (2000). An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (edisi ke-7th). New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3771-X.

[Tammetal-7] Tamm, Erika; Kivisild, Toomas; Reidla, Maere; et al. (5 September 2007). "Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders". PLoS One. 2 (9): e829. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..829T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000829. PMC 1952074 . PMID 17786201.

[Derenkoetal-8] Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Grzybowski, Tomasz; et al. (21 December 2010). "Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia". PLOS ONE. 5 (12): e15214. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...515214D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015214. PMC 3006427 . PMID 21203537.

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