Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II (1767–1852) was the 8th Sultan of the Palembang Sultanate from 1804–1821. His parents were Sultan Muhammad Bahauddin and Ratu Agung Al-Haddad. He is now regarded as a National Hero of Indonesia.^[1] He was featured in the original 2005-issue and modified 2010-issue Rp10,000 banknotes.

Raden Hasan Pangeran Ratu was the eldest son of Sultan Muhammad Bahauddin.^[2]

Under the regnal title Mahmud Badaruddin II, Raden Hasan ascended the throne as the seventh Sultan of Palembang Darussalam, ruling from 1803 until 1821.^[3]

In 1809, Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II sent a letter to Governor-General H.W. Daendels regarding a tin repayment and supply contract. Daendels replied arrogantly, threatening to lower tin prices and attack Palembang if the next shipment lacked white tin. In response, the Sultan, after consulting with nobles and community leaders, began military preparations: strengthening forts and defenses, inspecting waterways for strategic use, and reinforcing security at key points such as Kuala Sunsang.^[4]

In May 1811, Thomas Raffles, the British Governor-General based in Malacca, sent a letter to Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II. He promised to provide 80 rifles, 10 sacks of gunpowder, and additional military support if the Sultan agreed to attack the Dutch post (Loji) at Sungai Aur.^[5]

The Sultan first investigated the matter by sending envoys to Malacca. They observed that British forces were concentrated there. Further inquiry revealed that by early August 1811, the British and Dutch were already at war in Java.^[6]

Concluding this was the right moment to act, the Sultan and his council prepared to strike the Dutch in Palembang. On 13 September 1811, about 2,000 troops were assembled around the palace.^[6]

On 14 September 1811, Kiyai Temenggung Lanang, accompanied by four nobles, met Resident Jacob van Woortman to deliver the Sultan’s order that the Dutch must vacate the Loji that very day.^[6]

van Woortman refused, citing the lack of instructions from his superiors. Temenggung Lanang returned to the palace to report, while the four nobles and their escort were ordered to remain on guard near the Loji.^[6]

Later that day, Temenggung Lanang returned with around 500 soldiers and local supporters, bringing a letter from the Sultan stating that Java had fallen under British control and demanding the Dutch departure. Woortman again rejected the demand.^[7]

By evening, Palembang forces, aided by townspeople, stormed the Loji, disarmed the Dutch soldiers and residents, and transported them by boat toward Sungsang. During the journey, the captives revolted, leading to heavy casualties: 24 Europeans and 63 Javanese were killed. Only a handful survived, including an interpreter named Willem van de Weeteringe Buijs, a Portuguese man, and three Dutch women.^[8]

On that day, on 14 September 1811, Mahmud Badaruddin II managed to drive the Dutch forces out of the Loji Sungai Aur stronghold. The event later was called Peristiwa Sungai Aur (Sungai Aur Event, or Palembang massacre)^[9]

On 18 September 1811, the Treaty of Tuntang was signed, formally transferring control from the Dutch to the British. Following this, Raffles’ representatives asked Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II to hand over the Loji at Sungai Aur along with the tin mines in Bangka and Belitung so they could be placed under British authority.^[8]

The Sultan refused, arguing that both the Loji and the mines were no longer under Dutch control at the time the treaty was concluded. The British countered by insisting that the seizure had taken place after the agreement. Unable to press the matter further, the British envoys returned to Batavia to report back to Raffles.^[8]

On 20 March 1812, Raffles dispatched an expedition to Palembang under Major General Robert Rollo Gillespie. The Palembang Sultanate also prepared for defense. Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II appointed his younger brother, Raden Husin, as commander of the Pulau Borang fortress with the title Pangeran Adi Menggalo. On 15 April, the British fleet arrived at the Sunsang estuary. Customs officials sent to inspect the ships did not return, nor did a military envoy who was later dispatched.^[10]

Soon after, British troops disembarked and moved toward Palembang. This was reported by Pangeran Adi Menggalo, prompting the Sultan to organize defenses and evacuate women and children. The British then attacked Pulau Borang. Realizing that his forces were outmatched in numbers and weaponry, Pangeran Adi Menggalo withdrew to Palembang to consult the Sultan.^[10]

The Sultan decided to fall back to the Rawas estuary. Before leaving, he handed leadership of the Sultanate to Pangeran Adi Menggalo, instructing him to remain in Palembang, not to raise the British flag, and not to conclude any agreements with them.^[10]

On 14 May 1812, Gillespie recognized Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin II as the ruler of Palembang. The Sultan then signed an agreement with the British, ceding Bangka and Belitung. On his return to Batavia via Mentok, Gillespie officially declared the two islands as British colonies on 20 May 1812, naming them the "Duke of York Islands."^[11]

Mahmud Badaruddin II adopted guerrilla tactics, strengthening defenses with new forts such as Tanjung Muara Rawas, Seberang Musi, and Tanjung Rawas. Rapid-response units were organized, defensive posts with firing holes were built along riverbanks, and barriers were placed to block enemy boats.^[11]

In Palembang, Captain Meares represented the British after Gillespie’s return to Batavia. He pursued Mahmud Badaruddin II but was injured in a clash with guerrillas at Bailangu. Major Robinson replaced Meares and concluded that Mahmud Badaruddin II could not be defeated militarily. He chose negotiation and met with the Sultan. On 13 July 1813, Mahmud Badaruddin II returned to Palembang, re-establishing his rule at Kuto Besak Palace, with his brother R. Husin as Sultan Mudo at Kuto Lamo Palace. Robinson’s decision was not approved by Raffles. He was dismissed from office and also accused of financial mismanagement.^[11]

In August 1813, Major Colebrooke arrived in Palembang carrying Raffles’ declaration dated 4 August 1813. On 14 August, the British deposed Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II and reinstated Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin II as ruler of Palembang.^[12]

As a result of the London Treaty of 1814, the Dutch were to take over several British territories, including Palembang. The handover was carried out at Mentok on 10 December 1816 between M.H. Court of the British and K. Heynes of the Dutch. Heynes was later replaced by R. Coppa Green while awaiting H.W. Muntinghe, who arrived on 20 April 1819. Administration was gradually moved to Palembang, while duties in Mentok were given to M.A.P. Smissaert. In July 1818, Muntinghe began operations in Palembang with the mission to depose Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin II and dissolve the Palembang Sultanate.^[13]

Muntinghe forced Ahmad Najamuddin II (Sultan Mudo) to abdicate and recognized Mahmud Badaruddin II as ruler, creating conflict between the two brothers. Ahmad Najamuddin II informed Raffles in Bengkulu, who then sent troops to Kuto Lamo and raised the British flag. Dutch forces surrounded the palace, captured the British soldiers, and sent them back via Batavia to Bengkulu. Muntinghe accused Ahmad Najamuddin II of involvement and eventually captured him, exiling him and his family to Cianjur on 30 October 1818.^[14]

This angered Mahmud Badaruddin II, who began strengthening resistance through guerrilla preparations. During Muntinghe’s expedition to Musi Rawas, his forces faced continuous resistance and suffered losses, forcing him to withdraw and attempt punitive operations, which also failed.^[15]

Muntinghe then demanded that Mahmud Badaruddin II surrender his son, Pangeran Ratu. The Sultan refused. Muntinghe issued an ultimatum threatening to bombard the city if the prince was not handed over. In response, Mahmud Badaruddin II ordered full defensive preparations. His sons-in-law, Pangeran Kramo Jayo and Pangeran Nato Kesumo Dirajo, were assigned to lead defenses at the Baluwarti; Pangeran Citro Adi Menggalo Muhammad Soleh was placed in charge of the rear defenses facing Sungai Tengkuruk. All city gates were closed, and cannons were mounted on the walls of Kraton Kuto Besak.^[15]

In 1811, the British Empire launched an invasion of Palembang, compelling Mahmud Badaruddin II to retreat and wage a guerrilla resistance. During this period, he designated his younger brother with the title Sultan Mudo (Young Sultan) Ahmad Najamuddin II, who ruled from 1812 to 1813.^[16]

Mahmud Badaruddin II regained power in 1813.^[16]

Herman Muntinghe, in 1817, demanded that Mahmud Badaruddin II hand over Sultan Mudo.^[17]

On 12 June 1819, fighting against the Dutch broke out openly in Palembang. Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II’s forces fiercely resisted attacks on the kraton and the city, forcing Dutch troops into disarray. When Muntinghe requested a temporary truce, the Sultan, displaying magnanimity and confidence, granted it while remaining vigilant.^[18]

After the truce expired on 15 June, heavy battles resumed. Palembang’s defenders, under the Sultan’s command, deployed fire rafts against Dutch warships and destroyed the Dutch fort at Sungai Aur with cannon fire from Kuto Besak. The strength of Palembang’s defense shocked the Dutch. Defeated and suffering heavy losses, Muntinghe withdrew with his surviving forces—retreating first to Bangka and then to Batavia.^[19]

After Muntinghe’s defeat, Governor-General Van der Capellen convened a high-level council on 30 July 1819 with Admiral Wolterbeek and General de Kock. The meeting decided to send a major expedition against Palembang under General Schobert and Admiral Wolterbeek, with Muntinghe also included. The plan was to depose Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II and install Prince Jayo Ningrat, third son of Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin II.^[20]

The expedition, consisting of warships and nearly 900 soldiers, departed in August 1819, later reinforced in Mentok. By October they reached the Palembang region. Muntinghe sent an envoy urging Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II to surrender, but the Sultan firmly refused, preparing to face the Dutch offensive.^[20]

According to a government historian team, Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II responded to Dutch aggression by organizing a layered defense system across the Palembang Sultanate. Owing to its landscape of waterways and coastal zones connecting Sumatra with Bangka and Belitung, the Sultanate developed both land (infantry) and naval defenses, with particular strength at sea and along rivers. Palembang’s naval forces reportedly controlled major straits such as Bangka, Karimata, Gaspar, Berhala, and Sunda, which linked to the Malacca Strait, the South China Sea, the Java Sea, and the Indian Ocean. This maritime control, they assert, enabled the Sultanate to restrict tin and spice smuggling and to counter British attempts to secure a monopoly similar to that held by the Dutch since 1659.^[21]

The Dutch fleet faced delays entering the Musi River and only reached Pulau Kemaro in October 1819. On 18 October, Palembang forces unexpectedly opened fire from Tambak Bayo fortress, causing chaos. Admiral Wolterbeek again tried diplomacy, urging Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II to surrender, but the Sultan refused.^[22]

The Dutch then launched a heavy bombardment, but were shocked by the strength of Palembang’s defenses. Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II had, in just four months, positioned artillery along the Musi from Pulau Kemaro to Plaju, set up crossfire positions, fire rafts, and barriers to block ships. The fierce resistance forced General Schobert to retreat, while Wolterbeek imposed only a blockade at Sungsang.^[22]

The defeat led the Dutch to adopt a new strategy: using political deceit, they brought Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin II and his son Prabu Anom to Palembang as hostages.^[23]

By decree of the Governor-General on 28 April 1821, Prabu Anom, son of Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin II, was officially recognized as Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin Prabu Anom, while Ahmad Najamuddin II took the title Susuhunan Husin Dhiauddin.^[24]

Soon after, the Dutch launched a major expedition under General Baron de Kock with a large fleet and thousands of troops. As usual, they attempted psychological pressure: de Kock informed Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II that Ahmad Najamuddin II and his son were aboard Dutch ships, and urged him to surrender and hand the throne to Prabu Anom. The Sultan refused.^[24]

On 10 June 1821, Dutch troops tried to flank Palembang's defenses but were repelled. Subsequent naval assaults also failed, as Palembang's artillery struck Dutch ships, even damaging the flagship Nassau. After several failed attempts, Dutch forces again suffered heavy casualties and withdrew.^[24]

On 20 June, de Kock renewed the offensive with a massive bombardment, but Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II's defenses still held. No attack came on Friday, 22 June, leading the Sultan to believe the Dutch respected the Muslim holy day. In turn, he ordered a ceasefire on Sunday to honor the Christian holy day.^[25]

This proved fatal. In the early hours of Sunday, 24 June 1821, while Palembang's defenders were off-guard, the Dutch launched a surprise assault, cleared the river obstacles, seized Pulau Kemaro, and broke through to Palembang. With the defenses along the Musi River collapsing, Dutch forces advanced, occupied key positions, and attacked the Kuto Besak palace.^[25]

The fall of Palembang on 24 June 1821, through deception and overwhelming force, marked the largest and fiercest battle the Dutch had yet fought against an Indonesian ruler.^[26]

In 1819, he appointed his eldest son as sultan under the royal title Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin Pangeran Ratu, while he himself assumed the position of susuhunan.^[16] In the same year, Muntinghe once again demanded Mahmud Badaruddin II to surrender, this time, his eldest son along with his vassals.^[17]

On 10 June 1821, General de Kock issued a letter urging him to capitulate, following the arrival of Dutch forces at Pulau Salanama (Salanama Island) in preparation for an assault on Palembang.^[17]

After breaking through Palembang’s defenses on 24 June 1821, General de Kock issued orders praising the Dutch army and navy for their cooperation and victory. He then declared that the next task was to capture the palace. On 26 June, de Kock sent a letter to Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II, warning that if the kraton was taken by force it would be destroyed and many people would die, urging him to surrender for the sake of his people. The following day, Pangeran Adipati Tuo protested the Dutch attack on a Sunday, which the Sultan had respected as a Christian holy day, and conveyed that the Sultan was willing to hand over power to his brother if allowed to remain in Palembang. de Kock rejected this, insisting the Sultan must surrender and be sent to Batavia.^[27]

By 30 June, under heavy pressure, Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II asked for two days to prepare, but when the deadline passed he still refused to submit. Finally, on 3 July 1821, the Dutch arrested him and sent him aboard the frigate Dageraad. He was taken to Batavia, arriving on 28 July, and in March 1822 was exiled to Ternate.^[27]

In Ternate, the Sultan and his family were given a settlement known as Kampung Palembang. He lived there with dignity, and his presence left a strong impression on the local people. During a period when the Ternate Sultanate was vacant, he was even regarded by some as Sultan of Ternate, though the Dutch quickly restored the local ruler to limit his influence.^[28]

On 3 July 1821, Mahmud Badaruddin II was deposed and exiled. He was succeeded by Raden Ahmad, the eldest son of Ahmad Najamuddin II, who was enthroned with the royal title Ahmad Najamuddin Prabu Anom.^[16]

Governor-General van der Capellen, who met him in exile in 1824, recorded in his diary: "Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II is not at all barbaric. In war he knew how to defend his position, and he truly possessed the qualities of a king."^[29]

In 1980, in its official publication, the Government of South Sumatra assessed that the resistance led by Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II fulfilled the criteria outlined in Presidential Decree No. 241 of 1958 and Presidential Decree No. 228 of 1963 regarding the designation of National Heroes and officially recommended that he be conferred the title of national hero of Indonesia.^[30]

• Masagus